Clairissa Breen is a professor of Criminal Justice and Social Work at Gannon Univ. She received her Ph.D. in Criminal Justice from Temple University and is also certified as an Anti-terrorism Specialist.

From a young age, you felt passionately about justice. You have always had a strong sense of right and wrong. You’ve wanted to help people and make a difference. You found a program in criminal justice and you are sure you’ll love every minute of it. You enjoy your classes, learning how the criminal justice system works and how procedures impact crime. The more you study, the more you learn, and the more you reinforce your love of this subject.

Then your professor starts assigning research papers and oral presentations. Your ethics class tells you that people you admire and wanted to emulate have done immoral and sometimes illegal things. You are given articles to read from scholarly publications that do not seem to have anything to do with the real-world job you want. These are challenges, but they have a purpose.

You need to know how to conduct research and write well to succeed in the criminal justice field. You need to know how to present and defend your ideas. You will have to write reports, affidavits, or warrants. You may find yourself talking to the media, calming down a hostage taker, or giving testimony in court. Professors require research papers and oral reports to make sure you can express yourself well in these formats.

I will admit, those scholarly articles are boring. However, it is important to know what academics are researching, because it can impact what you will do in the real world. Remember, your professors teach in this field because they feel passionately about justice too. As their student, you are part of their legacy. The time inside and out of the classroom, spent even on less interesting reading assignments, will help make you into the criminal justice professional you have always wanted to be.

Students in Saint Francis University's criminal justice major reflect on what drove them to pursue their field. The students discuss their motivations, their experiences in their classes and their hopes for the future.

James Litzinger: The reason I chose my major is I’ve always kind of found myself to be a public servant. I do the fire department, I respond with emergency medical services. One of the only things I’ve ever really been good at is helping people, so I figured why not do that as a career?

Danielle McClintock: I chose criminal justice because I like to help people, and I like the adrenaline rush, and whenever it comes to, helping people, I know that a lot of people served for me, so I think the best way to give back is to serve for them by being in the criminal justice field. 

Gracie Barrow: Switching over to a major is a pretty big deal, and career-changing, so it was kind of like life-altering for me, and now to see myself doing, you know, maybe a counselor for juveniles or working in the, like, the corrections system, it’s just something that really excites me because it’s something different. 

Devin Layton: Like ever since I was a kid I always, like, in the summers me and my brother would sit down in front of the TV and watch, like, the FBI files or investigative shows, and that’s always just kept my interest, and throughout high school it still kept my interest.  

James Litzinger: I think one of my better experiences was whenever I was part of a criminal investigations class, we went over how fingerprinting works, how DNA works. We actually got to use a lot of the equipment that police officers and crime scene investigators use in the field. We got to see how they worked right in front of us rather than having to read it in a book. And at the end of the class it just felt like it was very rewarding. 

Danielle McClintock: The best thing that I like is how our professors allow us to go off campus and get involved in the community, such as we went to the juvenile delinquency center and different correctional facilities, so it really gave you a hands-on experience of, you know, what you were getting into whenever you left Saint Francis. 

James Litzinger: I just have to say that my experience at Saint Francis and in the criminal justice program has just been one of a kind. I mean, there’s nothing better than doing what you, you know, you feel that you were meant to do. And, I mean, it’s great knowing that you’re going to be working in the field that you just love. And it’s great and rewarding to take classes and get hands-on experience while you’re still in school. 

Dr. Clairissa D. Breen is an assistant professor of Criminal Justice and Social Work at Gannon University in Erie, Pennsylvania. She received her Ph.D. from Temple University and is also certified as an Anti-Terrorism Specialist.

So, you are thinking of majoring in criminal justice? There is no more challenging or rewarding field. Education is very important to a future career in criminal justice. Advancement in most criminal justice fields requires at least a bachelor’s if not a master’s degree. However, there are some points to consider. Criminal Justice encompasses a wide range of careers. Be careful in choosing your academic institution, look at everything the criminal justice program and the campus has to offer. 

When choosing a criminal justice program look for one that gives you a solid background in all aspects of criminal justice. This means you are looking for a program that provides courses in law enforcement, corrections and courts, as well as criminological theory and criminal justice ethics. Criminal justice has an international aspect to it, as well as a practical aspect. Look for programs that provide internships, locally, state, federal, and international if possible. Check out international and study abroad programs that will provide comparative experiences.

Criminal justice is a field in which you will spend a lot of time working with other people. Develop and strengthen you people skills. Focus on both oral and written communication – think about how you would present your ideas if you were being questioned in court and filling out a report for a supervisor. Math is important, especially accounting and statistics.

The first helps you understand how to “follow the money” – an integral part of understanding the financial side of crime. The second helps you understand how policies and budgets come into fruition for any faction of the criminal justice system, as all are influenced by statistics of crime, victimization and population change. Look for specialties within the department that interest you: Crime mapping, terrorism, women and crime, juvenile justice, victimology, and restorative justice. Look not only at the classes offered, but the research interests of the faculty. Faculty research interests can open up new venues for internships and experiences, as long as you display a solid work ethic and interest in the subject.

Think carefully about what you might want to minor in as well as your major. If you are interested in art crime, a minor in art history would be beneficial. If you are more interested in community corrections, a minor in social work or urban studies would be helpful. Double majors are also a possibility. Seek out the opportunities your perspective college has to offer for leadership and community service, both will serve you well in your future career. Join your campus’ criminal justice club or honors society. If one does not exist, approach faculty about starting one. 

Criminal justice is a field that constantly changes and adapts. New laws are written, new policies are enacted, and new theories of who, why, what and how are developed. Realize that some careers in criminal justice require that you have time in the field before you are eligible to take that position – you do not start as a detective in a police department or a warden of a prison.

Pursuing a career in criminal justice will highlight some of the worst aspects of human nature, make certain that you have a well-developed support network – family, friends and spiritual fellowship – as well as hobbies outside of the field that will give you a way to relax or decrease stress both in preparation for a job in the field and once you have taken a position. Be aware careers in criminal justice mean that you will be held to a higher ethical and behavioral standard. You must have an unblemished record and avoid experimentation with drugs and underage alcohol use. Careers in criminal justice can also be very dangerous. Criminal justice professionals have been the target of violent crime, beyond the scope of their daily careers. Studying criminal justice is a great start to an exciting career, but there are also boring parts – plenty of paperwork and desk time. Criminal justice careers are rarely similar to anything you see on television or read in the latest thriller. Just like any course of study, your experience will be what you make of it. Study hard, take opportunities for personal growth and try new things.

Accreditation is essentially a set of criteria that a school must meet. Accrediting boards will dictate certain curricular requirements (such as math, foreign language, and communications classes) and schools must offer an appropriate number and type of courses every semester to meet that requirement. An accrediting board can also demand that a school provide certain support services for free to all students, such as career counseling or writing center tutoring, and that they maintain an acceptable faculty-to-student ratio. 

Why it is Important for a School to Be Accredited

Accreditation standards exist to hold schools accountable. Because it is a third-party organization, it is one of the most objective evaluators of a school, and all information it has regarding a school must be made public. If there were no such overseer, schools could essentially charge students as much as they want and offer any kind of courses, at any quality, that they wished. Accreditation protects students. Because schools must renew their accreditation every few years, the schools are periodically reevaluated, ensuring that schools stay on top of all curricular and service requirements. 

In order for a school to receive state or federal funding, it must be properly accredited. Therefore, any student who is planning on using federal financial aid to finance his or her education must attend an accredited school. Furthermore, any student who wants his or her degree recognized by a graduate institution must attend an accredited school. It very rarely makes sense for a student to attend an institution that is not properly credentialed.

Why it is Important to Check a School's Accreditation

Checking the accreditation of a school can keep students from wasting their time and money. When applying to major public universities and popular private universities, students can usually be sure that their school will have the proper accreditation. Only when applying to lesser-known schools, especially those online, should students be particularly diligent about checking a school's accreditation. 

There are six regional accrediting boards, and these are the most popular boards through which schools gain nationally recognized accreditation. All 50 states are covered by these geographically-based boards. Students can check a school's accreditation in one of three main ways:

• Directly through the school. Schools will generally advertise their accreditation, though this should not necessarily be taken at face value. Students also have the option of contacting the school directly.
• Through the website of the regional accrediting board in their area, which will invariably list the institutions that it accredits and will also supply information on the requirements for accreditation.
• On the U.S. Department of Education's website, as the organization is required to maintain a public list of all accredited institutions in the United States.

There are many, many online schools out there. Some of these schools are very high quality, while others exist mainly for profit. Before enrolling in, or even before applying, to a program (applying to colleges online can be a costly and time-consuming process), students should be certain that a school is properly accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting board, and should select a program that has been around for a while. If the school provides opportunities to speak with actual graduates of the program, that  would be ideal as those who actually completed the program will be able to give the most honest and well-informed feedback of what the experience is like. Comparing the classes and specializations offered at each school is also an important aspect of researching an online university or college's criminal justice program. 

Make a Plan

Most online schools do not have set times for their classes. They will upload lecture notes or videos and supply a reading list, but students may not have to sit down to complete coursework on a daily basis like a traditional student does. For this reason, many online students procrastinate and get behind in their work, especially during their first quarter or semester as an online student. Anticipating this challenge is important, as many online students underestimate it. Online students are encouraged to stick to a regular study schedule, just as traditional students are. Following the syllabus as closely as possible in a timely fashion will help ensure a student's success.

Familiarizing oneself with the format of an online program is also key to a student's success. Know how and when tests are administered, whether work will consist mainly of reading and essays or whether most examinations and assignments will be in a multiple choice testing format. Although it is often challenging in an online setting, online students should make an effort to reach out to professors and to other students. Even though they will never meet face to face, students and professors may be able to enjoy a similar relationship to that which exists between traditional students and teachers. 

Learn In Other Ways

Online criminal justice students may need to explore the field on their own as much as possible to find what their specific interests are. Participating in community services at counseling centers, corrections facilities or halfway houses may help students get a better understanding of what they are learning via their online classroom and build skills that they will be able to market to employers after graduating. 

Scholarships can be very competitive and it may be time consuming to find and apply for them, but they are among the best ways to finance one's education, as they essentially offer free money that does not have to be repaid. There are many opportunities for criminal justice students to apply for scholarships of various values and requirements, no matter what level of education they are at.

Eligibility for Criminal Justice Scholarships

In order to earn a criminal justice scholarship, an applicant must first be enrolled in a criminal justice degree program (some scholarships may apply to related majors, like prelaw and police science). Many scholarships are specifically intended for graduate or undergraduate students. Each scholarship awarding board may set forth its own criteria, and some prefer to offer scholarships only to underrepresented students, like African-American students or female students. There are professional organizations – like the National Association for Blacks in Criminal Justice – that offer scholarships to such students. Other scholarships may impose age limits or require certain types of experience, like police or probation backgrounds.

Where to Find Criminal Justice Scholarships

Students should get creative when looking for scholarships to fund their criminal justice education. A person who has already worked in some sector of the criminal justice system may be able to get financial assistance from their employer. For example, a paralegal's law office might have scholarship funds to help them complete a bachelor's degree in criminal justice or a police officer who has decided to get a master's degree in criminal justice might find scholarship opportunities through their police department. Some criminal justice departments have local scholarship funds that are open to the general public, and high school or current college students might be eligible for these awards. Some are available to children or spouses of criminal justice professionals. 

There are also hundreds upon hundreds of general scholarships out there, nearly all of which can be applied to criminal justice programs at either the associate's, bachelor's, or master's degree levels. One of the best resources to find both general and criminal justice-specific scholarships is directly through one's school. Every college and university in the country offers scholarships of some kind, and it is worthwhile for students to seek these out through their counselors or financial aid office. Criminal justice departments may offer their own particular scholarships. 

Professional criminal justice organizations, especially those that cater to students, may offer a scholarship program. The Department of Homeland Security and other federal or state agencies have offered scholarships to students in the past, though government budget cuts have forced many agencies to end these programs. 

The certificate in criminal justice is relatively rare. The majority of careers in criminal justice require at least a bachelor's degree, though there are several options for graduates of associate's degree programs as well. Many community colleges and for-profit training organizations offer certificate courses in criminal justice, and they are ideal for adults who are seeking a career change in to the criminal justice system, but who have already completed a bachelor's degree in an unrelated field and have several years of work experience. For example, a person with a bachelor's degree in psychology, a master's degree in counseling, and several years of experience as an addicition counselor, could benefit from earning a certificate in criminal justice if he or she is planning on switching to a career as a probation officer. (Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences)

Completing a Certificate of Criminal Justice

Since certificate courses are short, students will take only a few classes. Perhaps the primary distinction between a certificate program and a degree program is the omittance of general education classes like English, math, foreign languages, and general science. Students will jump right into a criminal justice curriculum, and will take classes that help them build the fundamentals. For example, they may first take a course with a title like "The Criminal Justice System." This course will introduce students to all the professionals who are working in the many-faceted and ever-evolving criminal justice system, from the paralegals to the forensic psychologists. Such a course will help students not only understand the inner workings of the system, but understand what they would like their place in the system to be. Other courses might be criminology and the basics of law. 

Completing a certificate in criminal justice will usually require about a year of full-time study. Many students complete their certificates in an online format, which is arguably the most convenient way. There are some programs that take over a year to complete, but for those students who willing to commit two years, it is generally a better idea to complete an associate's degree, which will likely be both cheaper and more beneficial.

Using a Criminal Justice Certificate

A person with only a high school diploma and a criminal justice certificate will have only entry-level opportunities, like beginning jobs with local police departments and correctional facilities. A certificate may also qualify recent high school grads, or anyone else who does not have a bachelor's or associate's degree, for a career as a paralegal. Someone who has experience in the system and a certificate, as well as a bachelor's degree in any area, may be able to use the certificate to obtain promotions in their workplace. 

Most people who complete an associate's degree in criminal justice do so at a community college. These two-year colleges are among the best values in education, providing quality classes and ample opportunities to build one's academic skills. There are some community college programs that are available on a part-time basis, and these may take students three years to earn, which is ideal for those who have full-time work or family commitments. The associate's degree in criminal justice can be an excellent springboard to lifelong careers in the criminal justice system. Graduates will be able to take their lives - both professional and academic - in many different directions.

Completing Associate's Degrees in Criminal Justice

During a student's time at a community college, he or she will probably take several general education classes to fulfill the college's requirements. In order to retain accreditation, most schools have to mandate that students take such classes as composition (or a comparable communications or English class) and general math classes. Some schools have other requirements, like classes that explore career options or help develop study skills. Students who recently graduated from high school and earned high grades in top classes may be able to bypass some of these requirements and take the kinds of courses they are interested in more quickly.

Classes in criminal justice at the associate's degree level are designed to prepare students for entry level jobs. They may study legal terminology, which is important for careers as paralegals or law enforcement professionals. Legal and law enforcement ethics classes are also important, as there are strict ethical guidelines governing careers in the criminal justice system that it is important for professionals to be aware of. 

Using an Associate's Degree in Criminal Justice

The most popular careers for graduates of associate's in criminal justice degree programs are paralegal jobs, forensic assistant jobs, detective assistant jobs, and jobs in law enforcement (like corrections and police work). Graduates who have other skills, such as counseling, may find their niche in an area that combines both backgrounds. Some associate's degree programs allow students to tailor their curriculum to suit their career interests. For example, there are many criminal justice associate's degrees that are specifically designed to train future paralegals, and many that are intended for future or current policemen. (National Association of Legal Assistants)

An associate's degree can also be an affordable and practical springboard to further education in the field of criminal justice. It is often the intention of a community college student to transfer to a university in their area after completing his or her preliminary degree. This option can save students time and money over the long run, and may help students develop necessary study skills before beginning university studies. 

There are many online schools and on-campus programs for criminal justice students. US News & World Report’s Best Colleges 2011 lists over 300 schools offering criminal justice degrees. Before you enroll in, or even apply to, a criminal justice program, do some research about program accreditation and see if the subjects that you wish to study in a criminal justice program are available at your school of choice.

Find an Accredited Criminal Justice Program

Whether you choose to acquire an online criminal justice degree or a criminal justice degree on campus, it is crucial to make sure that the criminal justice degree program is accredited. Doing so will ensure that you will be offered suitable and relevant coursework in criminal justice and thus be more prepared for your career in criminal justice. In addition, a degree from an accredited school will greatly enhance your employment prospects. Here are some resources for accreditation research:

• The US Department of Education operates a database of accredited postsecondary institutions and programs. This is a great starting point for seeing if the program or school you are interested in attending is accredited. You can search by the institution’s name or the accrediting agency.
• The Distance Education and Training Council (DETC) provides accreditation to post-secondary institutions and has a database that can be searched by topic and/or location. Search for an accredited criminal justice degree distance program.

What You Will Study in a Criminal Justice Bachelor’s Degree Program

As an interdisciplinary social science, criminal justice encompasses several subjects that together provide a cohesive overview of criminal behavior and the criminal justice system. Classes may include topics like:

• Constitutional law
• Corrections history, practice, and theory
• Criminal evidence and procedures
• Gangs and the criminal justice system
• Police operations, organization, procedures and supervision
• Substance abuse and the law

A credited internship, senior seminar, and/or individual study may also be required components of your criminal justice program.

Duration of a Criminal Justice Bachelor's Degree Program

A bachelor’s degree in criminal justice can usually be completed within four years or less. The duration will depend on your personal circumstances, such as the number of credits that you take per semester, whether you take online classes, and if you have prior college credits that are deemed transferable to your program. Speak with the admissions counselor to your criminal justice program to assess your options, and be sure to lay out a timeline for completing your criminal justice studies.

A masters degree in criminal justice follows a bachelor's degree, just like any other type of master's degree. Students sometimes apply to masters programs immediately after graduating from their four-year university, but the majority of applicants have a few years of professional experience, whether it be in a field that is directly related to criminal justice or not. The most competitive programs are unlikely to hire graduates who have only just finished school, preferring those candidates who have experience to bring to the table. Volunteer or internship experience in criminal justice is preferable. 

Completing a Master's Degree in Criminal Justice

The master's degree in criminal justice usually takes two years of full-time study to complete. Students will take a number of courses that explore the criminal justice system at a deeper and more intellectual level than courses at the undergraduate level, which tend to focus on covering the basics of how the system works and how it got to be that way. In master's degree programs, students may be able to select a specialization so that they can focus on an area of criminal justice that is most interesting to them. 

Popular specializations include Criminology, Youth Criminal Behavior, Criminal Rehabilitation, Drug and Alcohol Related Offenses, Forensics, Homeland Security, Technology Crime, and Law Enforcement. Each of these specializations comes with its own set of challenges and career possiblities, and students are encouraged to select a specialization that suits both their career background and future career interests. A criminology program will include classes in psychology and sociology, helping students to understand how people become criminals and how they may be rehabilitated, making it ideal for future criminal counselors, forensic psychologists, or probation officers. A forensics specialization will train students to recognize patterns, safely handle and analyze evidence, and use a variety of means to solve a case. They will also be introduced to the court system, as forensic experts are often called as witnesses. Homeland security specializations will explore the inner workings of the federal law enforcement system, and how it operates both domestically and internationally.

Using a Master's Degree in Criminal Justice

The job opportunities available to a graduate of a masters in criminal justice program will depend on their specialization and any relevant experience. Graduates are commonly hired to work as probation officers, detectives, advanced law enforcement professionals, forensic experts, counselors and rehabilitation specialists in correctional facilities, and professionals in federal agencies. Some individuals in the military can advance in certain agencies after earning a masters in criminal justice. (Federal Probation and Pretrial Officers Association)

Very few people will ever earn a doctorate in criminal justice. Most programs accept, at most, a handful of new students each year, so the programs are very competitive and very time consuming. Full-time students will spend at least five years earning their doctoral degrees, and they usually do so while working at least part-time in a criminal justice field. Students who are full-time employees in the criminal justice systems will be very busy for several years to complete this highly advanced degree, and must be willing to dedicate many hours of their own time to original research and writing so that they may complete the requisite dissertation.

Furthermore, the average graduate of a doctoral program is tens of thousands of dollars in debt, and job opportunities for professionals at this level are highly competitive and, outside of the major cities, relatively rare. Only individuals who are extremely dedicated to their work in the criminal justice system, and becoming innovative leaders in the field, should consider applying to a criminal justice degree program. 

Completing a Doctorate Degree in Criminal Justice

At least five years of full-time coursework and independent research are expected to satisfy all the requirements of earning a doctoral degree in criminal justice. Many people have to dedicate more than five years because they complete their program on a part-time basis, regularly have to take time off of the program, or need more time to complete their dissertations and examination requirements.

Students will generally begin their doctoral degree programs by taking an array of classes that allow them to build their own ideas on the inner workings of the criminal justice system.They will study the history of the system in the United States, understanding how it has gotten to where it is now, and will move on to study hot topics in today's criminal justice system. For example, terrorist activity is a major issue in today's environment, as is gang-related crime and how diversity and cultural differences affect the criminal justice system.

Courses will likely be discussion-based, and will include significant amounts of reading and indpendent writing. Few graduate programs rely on traditional exams, preferring to evaluate student learning through written work. 

Using a Doctorate Degree in Criminal Justice

Virtually anyone who is the head of a major criminal justice organization, such as the CIA or the FBI or the Department of Homeland Security, will have a doctoral degree. Other top officials in this organization will also have advanced educations, in addition to impressive resumes. An individual with a doctorate in criminal justice may be a prime candidate to work as the head of local police departments or correctional departments. Of course, a person with a doctoral degree may also stick to the academic field and become a professor of criminal justice at a university or community college. 

There are criminal justice schools in every state and in every major city. Private and public universities, as well as community colleges, offer programs that lead to associate's degrees, bachelor's degrees, and master’s degrees in criminal justice, preparing students for all types of careers in the field. There is also a growing online presence in criminal justice education, meaning that even students who cannot commute to nearby schools to complete their degrees have access to quality criminal justice education that can open the door to many exciting and fulfilling careers. Some of these online programs are listed below, but there are many more, each catering to a different sort of student. Undoubtedly, prospective students will be able to find a program that suits their needs and interests.

• Kaplan University – Kaplan University offers a comprehensive array of programs in criminal justice, and can prepare students for virtually any career in the field. Everything from the general associate's degree in criminal justice to the masters degree in criminal justice with a specialization in leadership and executive management can be completed entirely online. This school may be a good fit for a student with a very specific specialization interest, as it offers a wide array of degree specializations, many of which are unique to the university.
• Walden University – Walden University is a well-respected name in distance education. It offers both a bachelor's degree and master's degree in criminal justice, and may assist students in finding practical internship or volunteer experiences in their area to enhance their education. This school offers several specializations for both graduate and undergraduate students, but is perhaps best recognized for offering the self-designed master’s degree option, so that students can tailor their graduate experience to suit their future career endeavors. This option is rarely offered so freely at other online schools. Walden is also one of the best online options for students of criminal justice at the doctoral level. 
• University of Phoenix – The University of Phoenix is one of the most well-recognized names in online education. It is one of the only schools to offer the bachelor's degree in criminal justice with a distinction in institutional healthcare. Individuals who pursue this degree may find the opportunity to become a leader or reformer in this unique field. General degree options are also available and most employers will recognize a degree completed via the University of Phoenix. 
• Liberty University – Liberty University is one of the only online universities that offers the very popular criminal justice specialization of youth corrections. It has several other specialization options for criminal justice students seeking bachelor's or master's degrees as well. 

The way a student pays for his or her education is always a major decision. Any type of degree or certificate requires a commitment of thousands of dollars, and for young students, college is a major financial shift in their lives. They are saddled with huge financial responsiblities to get their education as they are just starting to take responsibility for their own finances. Graduate students often do not have it any easier, as older graduate students have to balance family financial responsibilities with the desire to earn an expensive advanced degree. Therefore, students look to many sources to obtain funding for their degrees.

Personal and Family Contributions

Many parents these days plan ahead to fund a college education for their children, but as college has become remarkably more expensive over the last several years, this is no longer possible for most families. While parents may make contributions to their children's education as soon as they leave high school, many students find that they are personally responsible for at least part of their expenses. Some students are able to make personal contributions from savings and part-time jobs to cover living expenses and books. More and more students are choosing to live at home while they complete their degrees, as it saves them thousands of dollars. The option of attending community college for two years before transferring to an expensive university is also appealing to more and more students.

College Loans

Private loans are available, but should generally be a last resort. Most experts recommend that students get as much funding as they can from grants, scholarships, and personal contributions, then apply for federal student loans, and then go to private lenders to fill in any gaps that are left. Personal lenders have high interest rates, often offer only loans that accrue interest while a student is still enrolled in school, and demand that students begin repaying their loans as soon as they graduate. Since private schools are usually the most expensive, students who attend these schools may not be able to meet all of their funding needs through federal loan offers, and may turn to lenders like Sallie Mae and Wells Fargo.

Federal Stafford student loans remain the best option for students. With low interest rates (especially for students who sign with a cosigner), and the stipulation that the lender not take previous credit history in to account, most students find that these loans are their best option. They are offered for both undergraduate and graduate students, at any accredited school in the United States. (Federal Stafford Loans)

According to United States law, homicide is the act of killing another human being.  The death can be either intentional or unintentional, although the term is most often used when describing manslaughter or murder.  Manslaughter is defined as unintentional homicide and refers to acts of partial defense or gross negligence that results in another person's death.  Murder is intentional homicide committed by an individual of sound mind and body, and is often premeditated and unprovoked.  A homicide that is performed within the bounds of the law such as the killing of an enemy combatant during times of war or when a criminal is executed via capital punishment is called justifiable homicide.  Unlike murder or manslaughter, those responsible for a justifiable homicide do not face legal punishment.

Homicide is the 15th leading cause of death in the United States, with over 16,000 lives being ended by homicide each year.  The vast majority of homicides that are committed in the U.S. are done so with firearms of some kind.  In 2011, there were 11,493 homicides involving firearms, either intentionally or unintentionally.

Demographic Trends

Homicides are committed by people of all races and socioeconomic statuses for a number of reasons, although patterns do vary by age, gender and race.  For example, young men between the ages of 18 and 24 are statistically the most likely people to be the victims or perpetrators of homicide.  Young black men in this age group are far more likely than young white men to be involved in homicides.  Homicide victimization rates for black males of this age group are almost four times higher than the victimization rate of black males between the ages of 14 and 17 and twice as high as black men over the age of 25.  These rates have remained fairly steady since the late 1970s, although they spiked sharply in the 1990s to a rate of nearly 200 per 100,000 people per year.  To compare, the homicide victimization rate of white males of the same age group hasn't exceeded 20 per 100,000 people per year in the same time frame.  Meanwhile, the victimization rates of both white and black women of all age groups have been consistently lower than those of men, with women between the ages of 18 and 25 being the highest victimization group.  Black women are also far more likely to be victims of homicide than white women.

Statistics show that young black males are far more likely to be involved in homicide either as perpetrators or victims.  To give an idea of how disproportionately young black men are involved in these violent crimes, black males between the ages of 14 and 24 make up about one percent of the total population of the United States.  This has been fairly consistent since the late 1970s.  Despite this low percentage, nearly 30 percent of homicides were said to have been committed by black males in 2005.  That percentage was far higher in the early 1990s when it was approaching 40 percent.  The young white male population accounts for just under 20 percent of all homicides, a percentage that has remained relatively consistent between 1975 and 2005.

Victim–Offender Relationships

Statistics show that most perpetrators of homicide know their victims, making the vast majority of these crimes premeditated murders.  About one-third of these crimes were committed against a friend or acquaintance of the offender, although there are just as many cases in which the relationship between the offender and the victim was not known.  A far lower percentage of homicides are committed against an intimate relation of the offender such as a spouse, partner or ex-partner.  In all, only 14 percent of all murder cases involve complete strangers.  15 percent of murders are committed against members of offenders' families.  As discussed before, the vast majority of these murders are committed using firearms, although people are apparently more likely to use other methods when they murder non-intimate family members.

Sources

"Homicide: Murder and Manslaughter." The Crown Prosecution Service

"Assault or Homicide Faststats." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

"Murder Definition." Duhaime.org

The United States has a very large prisoner population (more than 2.3 million as of 2008). This means that many former prisoners are being released back into society every year. For example, in 2004, nearly 650,000 prisoners were released from prison. Prison reentry programs are designed to re-adjust those being released from prison to normal life, to help them get employment and proper housing. Reentry programs reduce recidivism and promote civic order and safety.

Overview of Reentry Programs

In the U.S., individual state governments are in charge of developing reentry programs. As you can imagine, the details and budgets of these programs, if they exist at all, vary wildly from state to state. In many states, all offenders receive the same basic reentry counseling or program.

Until approximately the 1950s, reentry programs in the U.S. were based on the principles of industrial parole and supervising the reentering prisoner until they received steady employment. The idea behind this was that the stability of full-time employment would provide income and prevent crime. However, with the decrease in manufacturing and other industrial jobs which ex-prisoners could land, prisons eventually moved away from this structure.

Reentry Program Goals

In general, most states’ reentry programs consist of the same basic components. The reentry support begins before the individual is released from prison and continues after they are in society. In prison, assessment is made of the prisoner’s needs and a release plan is developed. In the release plan, the seriousness of the prisoner’s conviction is considered, as are any special needs they may have upon release, such as mental or physical health issues. Prerelease, upon-release, and post-release assistance are the three types of assistance provided in reentry programs.  

The main goals of prisoner reentry programs are to decrease the recidivism rate, or the rate of offenders that commit crimes and are arrested again, after they have been released. Currently, there is approximately a two-thirds recidivism rate among offenders in the U.S.; from this number, it is obvious that reentry programs are crucial for reducing crime and increasing public safety.

Funding and Program Structures

Funding of programs and specific program goals vary by state, due to the size of the prisoner population and the state’s specific needs. For example, in Texas, a large proportion of the prisoner population does not have a GED or high school diploma. Therefore, education is a large focus of the Texas reentry program. Prisoners can earn high school diplomas, learn vocational trades, and even earn two- and four-year degrees.

In Ohio, the reentry program is somewhat flexible to the prisoner’s particular needs upon reentry. All prisoners complete 90-day reentry programs, which incorporate one or more “domains” into the curriculum; the domains include attitude, personal/emotional orientation, community functioning, associates and social interaction, marital/family relations, substance abuse, and employment/education.

Challenges Parolees Face

While it is easy to balk at the high recidivism rate in the U.S., the challenges facing prisoners upon being paroled from prison are daunting. They include:

• Housing Assistance: Many prisoners do not have family members or friends they can live with until they get on their feet. Many live in halfway houses, and homelessness continues to be a significant issue for those reentering society.
• Substance Abuse: Those recovering or recovered from substance abuse and addiction find that the unstable time upon reentry increases the likelihood of a relapse.
• Healthcare: Released prisoners with chronic healthcare issues find it hard to get the care they need or they lack the funds to pay for vital prescriptions and checkups.
• Education and Job Skills: Especially in a recession, it can be difficult for prisoners lacking a high school or GED diploma or job training to find a steady source of income.

Success Rates

There is little data available about the success of full reentry programs. However, sub-programs that could be considered reentry program components, such as job training, drug rehabilitation and halfway house programs have been shown to reduce the frequency of future crimes among offenders.

Sources

“The New York Times” (2008)

Eastern Michigan University (2008)

University of Massachusetts, Lowell (2009)

“Western Criminology Review” (2006)

University of Cincinnati (2006)

Law enforcement agencies must face all possible routes of narcotics entering into the United States. The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) must take into account the possibility of entry by air, land and sea. This entry can come from commercial and private flights, vehicles crossing the Canadian and Mexican borders, merchant and passenger ships docking at U.S. ports, and numerous smaller vessels that frequent other coastal towns. Cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, ecstasy, and marijuana are among the major narcotics involved in trafficking in the U.S.

Types of Drugs and Routes of Entry

Cocaine is primarily smuggled through the U.S.–Mexico border by crime groups operating from Colombia. Colombian drug traffickers rely heavily upon the eastern Pacific Ocean and utilize fishing vessels, go-fast boats and pleasure craft.

Heroin is produced and trafficked by four primary foreign source areas: Colombia, Mexico, Southeast Asia (primarily Burma), Mexico, and Southwest Asia/Middle East (mostly from Afghanistan). Heroin is smuggled via couriers traveling aboard commercial airlines, maritime methods such as cruise ships, privately owned vehicles, and even sewn into clothing and luggage jackets. New York City is the major hub for heroin trafficking.

Domestic methamphetamine production, trafficking, and abuse are concentrated in the western, southwestern, and midwestern parts of the U.S. Methamphetamine is also increasingly available in portions of the South and eastern U.S., especially Georgia and Florida. Clandestine laboratories in California and Mexico are the primary sources of supply for methamphetamine available in the U.S.

The principal traffickers of MDMA are Israeli and Russian drug trafficking syndicates and Western European drug traffickers. MDMA is smuggled into the U.S. by couriers via commercial airlines and express package carriers.

Marijuana is the most widely abused and readily available illicit drug in the U.S. Mexico, Canada, and indoor domestic sites are the major sources of marijuana.

Drug Law Enforcement in the U.S.

Ever since recreational drug use became highly popular in the 1960s, the U.S. government began cracking down on illicit drugs. In 1968, the Lyndon Johnson administration consolidated several drug agencies to form the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD). In 1969, the U.S. Customs Department subjected every vehicle crossing the Mexican border to a three-minute inspection in Operation Intercept. In 1970, Congress passed the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act. This law consolidated previous drug laws, reduced penalties for marijuana possession and allowed police to conduct "no-knock" searches. President Richard Nixon declared a war on drugs in 1971 and formed the Office of Drug Abuse Law Enforcement (ODALE) in 1972. In 1973, Nixon combined agents from the BNDD, Customs, the CIA and ODALE to form the DEA.

The DEA is now the only single-mission federal agency dedicated to drug law enforcement. The DEA has 226 offices organized in 21 divisions throughout the U.S. and works closely with state and local partners. Internationally, the DEA has 83 offices in 63 countries around the world. Among government agencies, the DEA has sole responsibility for coordinating and pursuing drug investigations abroad and works in partnership with foreign law enforcement counterparts. It employs nearly 10,000 men and women as special agents, diversion investigators, intelligence research specialists, and chemists. From fiscal years 2005-2011, the DEA stripped approximately $17.7 billion in revenue from drug trafficking organizations.

Seizures, Arrests and Drug-Related Homicides

In 2010, the DEA seized 29,179 kilograms of cocaine, 690 kilograms of heroin, 722,476 kilograms of marijuana, 2,067 kilograms of methamphetamine, and 2,578,935 dosage units of hallucinogens. According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, from October 1, 2008 to September 30, 2009 in the U.S., 30,928 (16.9 percent) of a total of 183,986 federal arrests were drug-related offenses. 8,491 of the arrestees were implicated with cocaine powder, 2,870 with crack cocaine, 7,294 with marijuana, 4,701 with methamphetamines, and 2,975 with opiates. Of 28,855 defendants, 8,988 (31.1 percent) were released. 23,311 of the drug-implicated defendants had been charged with drug trafficking and 7,141 (30.6 percent) of them were released. The other 5,544 of the defendants were charged with possession and other drug offenses, and 1,847 (33.3 percent) were released.

The total drug arrests in 2009 amounted to 31,701, and rose in 2010 to 30,922. The highest number of DEA arrests over the past 26 years was in 1999, with 41,297 arrests.

In 2007, the Uniform Crime Reporting Program of the Federal Bureau of Investigation reported that 3.9 percent of the 14,831 homicides in which circumstances were known were drug related. Murders that occurred specifically during a narcotics felony, such as drug trafficking or manufacturing, are considered drug related.

Sources

U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (2012)

“Frontline” (2011)

We've all seen it happen on crime dramas countless times: The detective, prosecutor, or hero is unable to find the one crucial piece of evidence that is needed to prove the identity of the killer in the latest case when, at the last minute, a tiny hair is discovered. This one seemingly insignificant hair is enough to turn the perfect crime into an open-and-shut case. It's discovered that the hair could only come from one person, and that one person (whose identity is apparently discovered within minutes) is obviously the perpetrator. The criminal goes to jail, justice is served and all is right with the world for another week.

Hair is introduced as crucial evidence in a trial so often in crime dramas that it's almost become a cliché, but is it a cliché with some truth to it? While hair is one of the most common forms of trace evidence that is commonly used in detective work, it is far from the smoking gun that television likes us to believe it to be. Hair can make for effective evidence and it can tell the police and prosecutors a lot about the person it came from, but it should by no means be used as grounds for conviction. For example, in 2000, a man named Claude Jones was executed in Texas for a murder committed back in 1989. The only evidence that tied Jones to the murder was a hair that supposedly belonged to him. This was enough to earn him the death penalty, but years later it came to light that the hair was not his. Sadly, this information was released too late to save Jones from execution. As convincing as hair can be as evidence, we always need to be careful that incidents such as this one do not happen.

Hair is most often found on clothing, rugs, and other soft objects to which it can cling. For the sake of being used as evidence, hair is categorized as either vellus hair or terminal hair. Vellus hair is very fine hair that grows all over the body and is difficult to see, while terminal hair is what most people imagine when they think of hair. This is the darker, thicker hair that grows on the top of the head, from the eyebrows or anywhere else where hair is commonly visible. Terminal hair is obviously the easiest hair to collect from a crime scene. It can and often is picked up with a pair of tweezers, but this isn't always recommended since the tweezers can damage the hair and destroy any DNA that can be taken from it. In many cases, hair can be removed from carpet or clothing with the use of tape, a technique that is used routinely in much of Canada.

Part of the reason why hair makes such convincing evidence in many cases is because sharp investigators can tell how a hair was removed from the body. For example, if the hair's root is intact, it was most likely torn out. This would imply that a struggle took place. Investigators can also tell what part of the body a hair is from. A long, straight hair that has been dyed or treated by some kind of product is most likely from the head, while coarse hair with a blunted end probably came from the face. Pubic hairs are coarser than most other hair and tend to buckle in the middle. The ability to identify where a hair came from on the human body is key in determining what exactly happened at the scene of a crime.

Hair can be used to determine all sorts of facts about the person it came from as well. The use of hair as DNA evidence is only a part of this, although that is very possible as long as the root of the hair is present. By analyzing a hair, investigators can determine if the subject used any heat treatments, poisons, chemicals, or other drugs. This can obviously provide some very useful evidence in the courtroom. It can even be used to determine the race of the person it came from. European hair tends to be very uniform, while hair from people of African descent is very fine. People of Asian or Native American descent often have thicker, coarser hair. Once again, all of this information is invaluable to police and prosecutors alike.

Hair can be very useful as evidence in a variety of different cases, but it is by no means perfect. No single piece of evidence should be used to convict a person of a crime, no matter how convincing it may be. Still, the fact that we can make so much out of so little is remarkable.

Sources

Crime & Clues

Forensic Science

Innocence Project

The Griffin Center of Hair Restoration & Research

In 2002, the federal government released the HSAS (Homeland Security Advisory System), a color-coded scale ranging from green (low threat) to red (severe threat) that was used for alerting the public to the possibility of terrorist attacks within the country. Over time, the HSAS received a significant amount of criticism for being impractical and difficult to interpret. Most complaints were directed at the nebulous meanings behind the various threat colors, which lacked objective criteria and were accompanied by blanket terms with no specific information regarding individual attacks. Others took issue with the lack of transparency and civilian involvement with the alert system, suggesting that the government should release more information to the public with regard to possible terrorist activities.

Because of these various critiques, the HSAS was phased out in 2011 in favor of a new alert system. The new system, known as the NTAS (National Terrorist Advisory System), is designed to address the problems of its predecessor by offering more timely and individualized information about possible acts of terrorism in the U.S. Moreover, rather than using a color coded threat scale, the NTAS is composed of only three threat categories:

No Threat Alerts

If there are no indications of a possible terrorist attack in the United States, then no alerts are issued.

Elevated

An elevated threat alert is issued when persuasive evidence is uncovered suggesting the possibility of a terrorist attack in the near future, but with no specific information with regard to location or time.

Imminent

Imminent alerts are reserved for cases in which information exists regarding confirmed, specified, and impending future terrorist attacks.

In the event of an elevated or imminent threat, the government will publicly disclose known details about the predicted terrorist act, such as the suspected location, means of transportation, and possible target of the attack. In addition to distribution through the news media, information about known threats will be displayed in public settings, such as airport terminals and government buildings. Finally, the public is encouraged to sign up for personal alerts that can be forwarded to email addresses, Twitter, or Facebook pages.

To provide a more reasonable time frame, the NTAS also includes a sunset provision for all threats, meaning that single alerts are designed to automatically expire after a given date and time. The time-span for an alert can be extended if there is sufficient evidence to warrant its extension.

When a threat is announced, information will be distributed along with the alert with regard to how to remain safe, how to potentially prevent the attack, and how to act if the attack does occur. Citizens are also encouraged to watch out for suspicious or incriminating behavior suggestive of a possible terrorist act (e.g., a backpack left in a public setting, a suspicious individual entering a restricted area, etc.) and to be especially observant for specific individuals or objects described by the NTAS alert. If something suspicious is observed, local law enforcement or 911 should be contacted immediately. If possible to do so safely, people should take pictures of the suspected person or event to assist law enforcement.

Sources

Homeland Security Advisory Council HSAS Task Force Stakeholder Feedback (2009) Department of Homeland Security

NTAS Public Guide (2011) Department of Homeland Security

NTAS Frequently Asked Questions (2011) Department of Homeland Security

The New National Terrorist Advisory System (2011) The White House Blog

What do criminal justice graduates do? Besides the excitement of being a police detective in a crime-ridden metropolitan area, there is a wide range of careers available, depending on the level of education attained, and your education in other subjects besides criminal justice, such as accounting, counseling, law, psychology, or social work. Your combined life experience, skills, and work history will also determine the kind of job you attain. For example, if you previously served in the military, you will often get veteran’s preference in government employment, which could lead to positions in federal law enforcement agencies such as the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) or the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

Other factors for getting a job with your criminal justice degree include:

• Certification in certain computer software or computer systems
• Foreign language skills (Amharic, Chinese, and Spanish are growing in demand)
• Willingness to relocate to another area of the country

Many jobs for criminal justice graduates can be found in the government sector, whether at the local, county, state, or federal level. The outlook for law enforcement positions is generally strong. For example, employment of probation officers and correctional treatment specialists will increase by 19% in the next ten years, according to the US Department of Labor. Keep in mind, however, that funding, not need, can oftentimes be the deciding factor in the hiring and retention of law and law enforcement personnel. Thus it may be necessary to relocate to another state or city where the government is more fiscally sound.

Here are some examples of careers for people with degrees in criminal justice. Many require a minimum of a bachelor’s degree, but some do require additional education, such as a JD, MSW, or PhD. There are, however, employers who will hire a competitive candidate and provide relevant, on-the-job training. For example, postal inspectors attend Basic Inspector Training upon becoming qualified hires.

If you are interested in a particular occupation, speak with a career counselor in your degree program, or if possible, a recruiter or someone who is employed in your occupation of interest. Here are just some of the types of jobs that criminal justice majors do:

• Attorney
• Bailiff
• Court clerk or court reporter
• Forensic psychologist
• Federal special agent for the ATF, DEA, FBI, or ICE
• Highway patrol officer
• Legal researcher
• Paralegal
• Parole officer or probation officer
• Police officer
• Postal Inspector
• Private detective or private investigator
• Probation officer
• Security guard or security firm manager
• Social worker
• Tax examiner

Article Resources:

• Indiana University Department of Criminal Justice
• Occupational Outlook Handbook
• United States Postal Inspection Service

Private detectives and investigators do many of the same tasks and have many of the same responsibilities as detectives and investigators working for government law enforcement agencies. The main difference is that instead of working for the federal, state, or local government, private detectives and investigators work for private companies, businesses, and themselves. 

Tasks and Responsibilities

The primary goal of private detectives and investigators is to help private companies, businesses and individuals find and locate information. Besides information, they may assist in finding and locating persons of interest. In their search for information and persons, they may look for evidence, evaluate clues, conduct surveillance, and track down other information and persons that may help them in their case.

Some of the reasons why a private detective and investigator may be hired include:

• Pre-employment verification of potential employees
• To assist in finding evidence for criminal and civil cases, such as child custody and mission persons cases
• To assist in investigating fraud and insurance claims, such as workers compensation claims
• To prove and disprove infidelity for persons who suspect their partner of cheating
• Help provide protection for high-profile celebrities and other individuals

Technology

Private detectives and investigators use a variety of technology to assist them in their investigations. They may spend a lot of time on computers to perform database searches, recover deleted documents and emails, pull up civil and criminal records, and locate personal information. The information that private detectives and investigators pull up are not just limited to records, documents and lists. They may even go on the subject's profiles on social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Myspace to pull up incriminating photos, associations and messages.

While the computer plays a huge part in the day-to-day working life of a private detective and investigator, they may still spend a lot of their time conducting old-fashioned surveillance. They may follow their subject, observe their actions and talk to people who may have information on the subject. Even during old-fashioned surveillance however, private detectives and investigators oftentimes use cell phones, cameras, recorders, binoculars, and GPS systems.

Law and Safety

While being a private detective and investigator may sound glamorous, the job can be dangerous. They may have to venture into dangerous locations and interact with dangerous people in order to get the information they need. They work often involves confrontation, whether with the subject or his protectors. Someone who wants to be a private detective and investigator needs to know that while the occupation has a relatively low rate of nonfatal work-related injuries, it can be very stressful and scary at times. 

Private detectives and investigators must also abide by all federal, state and local laws. Just because they are hired by a company to follow someone does not mean that they can break laws protecting a person's privacy. They must also collect evidence in a way that is allowed by the courts.

Source

Bureau of Labor Statistics (2009)

Both probation officers and correctional treatment specialists work with criminal offenders. While both occupations have the general duty to monitor and work with criminal offenders so that they do commit crimes again, they often work in different environments and perform different tasks.

Probation Officers

Probation officers monitor and work with people placed on probation. Probation is an alternative sentencing option to prison. Instead of going to prison, a criminal offender may be placed on probation because of his or her behavior, record, severity of crime, and expressed remorse. Additionally, many criminal offenders who have already served time in prison are released on parole. During probation, parolees must stay out of trouble, obey all laws and meet various requirements. The various requirements that parolees may need to satisfy to satisfy their probation terms include obeying all court orders, reporting any change of address or employment, submitting to regular drug and alcohol testing, and meeting regularly with their probation officer. In the case of former prisoners released on parole, they meet with their parole officer.

Probation and parole officers meet regularly with offenders, often in their homes, place of employment or other places that they regularly frequent. During their meetings, probation and parole officers speak with and monitor the offender to ensure that he is staying out of trouble, working toward becoming a productive citizen, and meeting all court-imposed requirements. This means that they may collect urine samples (to test for alcohol and drugs) from the offender, evaluate evidence that shows the offender is going to his rehabilitation or therapy program, and completing community service requirements. Probation and parole officers then write reports and recommended sentences for the courts based upon their findings.

Correctional Treatment Specialists

While correctional treatment specialists also often work with those placed in probation and parole, they are more involved with formulating and recommending their treatment plans rather than supervising their day-to-day activities. In addition to probation and parole agencies, they may work in prisons and jails. Those working in prisons and jails monitor and evaluate inmates. An inmate's parole and release plan is based upon a correctional treatment specialist's findings, which may involve direct observation of behavior, psychological tests, questionnaires, and background examinations. The correctional treatment specialist may incorporate education and training programs, counseling, and rehabilitation into the parole and release plan. Correctional treatment specialists who work for probation and parole agencies perform many of the same tasks at those that work in prisons and jails.

Sources

Bureau of Labor Statistics (2009)

Nolo (2012)

There are many career options for those interested in federal law enforcement. The federal government implements and enforces federal laws, which have precedence over state and local laws, through its federal law enforcement agencies. Careers options within federal law enforcement agencies for those with criminal justice background include correctional officer, police officer, intelligence agent, investigator, inspector, and patrol agent. Each federal law enforcement agencies has its’ own listing of job titles and options. The responsibilities and tasks of each position vary with each agency.

Federal Law Enforcement Agencies

Some of the major federal law enforcement agencies in the country include:

• U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) – ICE, the Department of Homeland Security's investigative agency, enforces the country's customs and immigration laws. More than 20,000 employees work in the ICE's 400 offices. 
• Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) – The FBI's mission is to enforce the country's federal criminal laws and to protect and defend the country against foreign intelligence and terrorist attacks. As the country's premier domestic intelligence and law enforcement agency, the FBI also assists state and municipal law enforcement agencies in investigations.
• Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) – The CIA provides national security intelligence to prominent policymakers and politicians, such as the president of the United States. They collect, analyze and pass on national security intelligence to those in charge of the country in order to protect the country against threats.

Possible Careers

Each federal law enforcement agency has its own career options for those with an educational background in criminal justice. Someone who wants to work in federal law enforcement should first decide which agency they want to work for, based upon their interest, qualifications and professional aspiration. Some of the career options in federal law enforcement include:

• Deportation Officer – Those interested in immigration can work for the ICE as a deportation officer. Deportation officers' main goal is to ensure that people who should not be in the country are deported. They conduct investigations, prepare reports and assist in the physical removal of illegal immigrants. They also work with government attorneys to provide support for removal cases. 
• Intelligence Officer – The ICE also employs intelligence officers. Intelligence officers analyze and evaluate information related to immigrations and customs enforcement. They provide intelligence to field offices conducting criminal investigations. They also monitor and coordinate general ICE intelligence operations.
• Special Agent – The FBI employs thousands of special agents. Special agents working for the FBI enforce federal statutes and conduct national security investigations. FBI special agents concentrate within one area, such as foreign counterintelligence, civil rights violations, organized crime, drug-trafficking, or terrorism. During their day, a FBI special agent may be gathering evidence, testifying in court, executing a search warrant, and meeting with informants. Special agents in the CIA's Office of Inspector General similarly conduct investigations, but with the goal of uncovering violations, mismanagement and abuse within the CIA.

There are many different types of forensic scientists, although you're probably most familiar with the roles you see in the media, or on television shows like CSI . But forensic scientists can participate in many aspects of the legal system, and they can work for either the defense or the prosecution during a court case. Some forensic scientists visit and analyze crime scenes, others work in laboratories, and some are educators who train students in the field.

As a forensic scientist, you could work for federal, state, and local governments. You could serve as an independent consultant or work in a morgue, hospital, toxicology lab, or in the police department. Some people even work as forensic scientists in their spare time, teaching or serving as an expert witness.

The American Academy of Forensic Sciences recognizes 11 types of forensic experts. In alphabetical order, these are:

1. Criminalists: Professionals who work with physical evidence like drugs, soil, human tissue, bullets, etc.
2. Digital and multimedia scientists: Professionals who work with digital photographs and computer imaging to look for possible alterations in photographs, or to make crime scene investigations more efficient. They also can investigate for possible tampering of digital devices, the presence of hackers in a system, or work on voice identification software.
3. Engineering scientists: These professionals can analyze the reasons for product failure, do a quality analysis of a structure, or investigate why a car's gas tank exploded on impact (among many other things).
4. General: This is a catch-all category for forensic scientists, which includes new areas of specialization like facial reconstructing sculptors, polygraph experts, etc.
5. Jurisprudents: This is a fancy name for lawyers who use expert testimony in court.
6. Odontolgists: Forensic dentists. These professionals can help identify human remains or analyze bite marks.
7. Pathologists/biologists: Professionals people who perform autopsies, determine cause of death, and identify the bodies of the deceased.
8. Physical anthropologists: Professionals who use skeletal remains to identify the dead.
9. Psychiatry and behavioral scientists: Professionals who are trained in assessing behavior and mental illness as they relate to legal issues (e.g. determining competence to stand trial, legal insanity, etc.)
10. Document examiners: Professionals who can determine the authenticity of documents.
11. Toxicologists: Professionals who investigate the effects of chemicals on living tissue. Workplace drug testing has created an explosion in this field.

Training & Education

Forensic scientists are highly educated and typically possess at least a bachelor's degree in the sciences, computer science, or mathematics. A graduate degree is very valuable in this job market. Forensic pathologists must have medical doctorates. Forensic dentists (odontologists) must have a doctor of dental science degree. And to keep up with advances in the field, forensic scientists are required to take continuing education classes in relevant subject areas throughout the course of their careers.

There are a number of organizations that offer certification for forensic scientists, including:

• The American Board of Criminalistics
• The American Board of Forensic Odontology
• The American Board of Pathology
• The American Board of Forensic Anthropology
• The American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology
• The American Board of Professional Practice in Psychology
• The American Board of Forensic Document Examiners.

Salary & Career Outlook

The role of forensic scientists in the justice system is growing and the annual salary of a forensic scientist varies based on a number of factors (e.g. level of education, geographic location, etc.). Projected employment of forensic science technicians is expected to rise 20 percent by 2018.

Because of the wide variety of jobs in forensic science, getting a clear picture of the average salary is a little difficult. In 1998, starting salaries for forensic scientists ranged from $20,000 to $40,000 per year. Experienced professionals who worked in crime labs earned $40,000 to $85,000 per year. In 2008, forensic scientist technicians earned an average of $23.97 per hour.

Article Resources:

American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Resources Page
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

Security guards are entrusted to patrol and protect private property from vandalism, fire, illegal activity, and terrorism. In some instances, security guards are also responsible for protecting people, such as shopping mall employees.

Daily Tasks

Security guards can patrol stationary locations, such as department stores, museums, or warehouses. They can also work as part of a mobile patrol unit. Some security guards are armed, while others are not. Some guards may spend a lot of time viewing surveillance cameras, while others will be required to patrol different areas.

Hours and positions are flexible in this field. There are opportunities to work full- or part-time. Depending on the needs of each employer, most offer temporary and permanent employment as a security guard.

Security guards must be detailed and keep records of any criminal or disruptive activity that occurs while they are on the job. They may be required to testify about such activity in court. Security guards must also be able to work under pressure and take charge in emergency situations, which on occasion might involve getting others to safety.

Education & Training

Most states require that security guards (armed or not) be licensed. To obtain licensure, individuals must be at least 18 years old, pass a background check, and take certain classes as determined by each state.

Most employers require that security guards possess a high school diploma or equivalent, and some prefer guards who have completed some secondary study in police science or criminal justice. Many employers also require that applicants be in good physical and mental health.

Salary & Career Outlook

• The average annual salary for a security guard is $48,000.
• As of June 2008, demand for security guards has risen 33 percent.
• Growth in the field is expected to continue through 2018.

Article Resources:

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
Simply Hired: Security Guard Average Salary
Simply Hired: Security Guard Job Trends

Careers in Criminal Justice

Criminal justice is a wide and varied field, with many different types of opportunities. A professional who works in one sector of the criminal justice system may actually have very little in common with a professional from another area. Therefore, there are no general requirements for all jobs in the criminal justice system. Each career must be looked at on an individual basis to understand how people start their careers in the field of their choice. Nearly all jobs in the criminal justice system begin with a bachelor's degree. 

• Probation Officer – Probation officers have relatively diverse professional and academic backgrounds. Some have only earned bachelor's degrees (there may be even be a few openings for those who have only associate's degrees in criminal justice) while other probation officers have master’s degrees in criminal justice, criminology or sociology. In one probation office, there might be professionals who are recently out of college working next to professionals with decades of counseling experience. It is best for prospective probation officers to study social work, criminal justice or psychology at the undergraduate level and seek internship or volunteer opportunities in counseling or in the criminal justice system. Many probation officers are required to undergo further training upon being hired.

• Forensic Investigator – Thanks to the popularity of “CSI” and other crime shows, forensic careers are well known. However, not many people know how to actually go about getting these careers. Forensic investigators properly collect and analyze biological evidence at crime scenes to help solve crimes. They may specialize in computer forensics, fingerprints, ballistics, handwriting, or biochemistry. Beginning a forensic investigation career involves earning a bachelor's degree; helpful college majors include chemistry, biology and computer science. Most forensic investigators have a masters degree or some other postsecondary training that specifically prepares them for the type of forensic work they will be asked to do. Apprenticeships are popular ways of training prospective forensic experts.

• Detective – Detectives are puzzle solvers, putting together pieces of evidence to solve crimes and capture suspects. Detectives are usually career policemen or have some other related career experience. They also nearly always have bachelor's degrees in such areas as psychology, sociology, criminal justice, or police science. Nowadays, many detectives have postsecondary degrees in criminal justice. Few people are hired as detectives as soon as they graduate from college, but some private agencies will take those who have gained experience while completing their undergraduate degrees.

The General Schedule classification and pay system, also known as the General Service (GS) pay scale, is one of the government-regulated pay scales. While employees in the private sector are paid according to how much the private company, business or individual decides to pay them based upon their education and experience, many government employees are paid according to a scale. The GS pay scale ensures that certain government employees are paid the same for performing substantially equal work in a given locale.  

Covered Employees

The GS pay scale covers the majority of the government's civil service employees. This includes employees in administrative, professional, clerical, and technical positions, which in 2012 numbered 1.5 million employees worldwide. Foreign Service employees are not paid according to the GS pay scale; instead, they are paid on the Foreign Service (FS) pay scale. Besides the GS and FS pay scale, the government uses at least four other pay scales to pay its employees.

Pay Scales

The GS pay structure, qualifications, classifications and policies are administered by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM). The OPM sets the guidelines for the GS pay scale. Each federal agency classifies its GS positions, according to the position's responsibilities, required qualifications, and difficulties, and pays its GS employees according to the guidelines. Under the GS pay scale, there are 15 pay grades. At the bottom is GS-1. At the top is GS-15.

An applicant's professional experience, education, and skills determines his or her initial pay grade. In general, applicants with a high school diploma and no work experience qualify for jobs in the GS-2 classification. Applicants with a bachelor's degree qualify for jobs in the GS-5 classification while those with a master's degree qualify for jobs in the GS-9 classification.

Within each pay grade is 10 steps. A new employee is usually placed in step one of the applicable pay grade, although this sometimes changes due to the employee's superior qualifications and the agency's needs. Each step is worth about 3 percent of the employee's salary. This means that an employee who advances from step one to step two will get a 3 percent salary raise. Employees advance from step to step based upon longevity and performance. The time that it takes to advance within each pay scale can be quite long; it takes about 18 years to go from step one to step two in the same pay grade. However, exceptional employees can receive step increases faster than their peers, so long as it is limited to one per year.

Due to budgetary constraints during certain years, pay freezes may be implemented. Pay freezes means that employees do not receive any pay raises for that year.

The average salary and job prospects for those in criminal justice vary with each specific occupation. Criminal justice is a broad field that includes a variety of careers. Some of the occupations that students who majored in criminal justice during school can undertake upon graduation include probation officer, correctional treatment specialist, police officer, detective, criminal justice and law enforcement teacher, and investigator. Here is the average salary and employment outlook for several criminal justice careers:

Police and Detectives

Most police officers and detectives are employed by the government. Thus, their employment and wage is directly tied to the government's budget. From its budget, the government decides the amount that it will spend on hiring and paying police officers and detectives. On the lowest government level, police officers and detectives can be employed by local police departments, meaning the police departments of cities, towns and counties. The United States Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports that job opportunities for police officers and detectives in most local police departments will be favorable, meaning that the number of job openings compared to the number of job seekers is in a rough balance, for individuals who meet job qualifications. As the result of population growth, which necessarily requires an increase of police services if safety is to be maintained, employment of police officers and detectives are expected to grow by 10 percent from 2008 to 2018. Compared to local agencies, employment of police officers and detectives in state and federal agencies is expected to be more competitive because of higher pay and prestige.

As of May 2008, the median annual wage for police and sheriff's patrol officers was $51,410. The median annual wage for criminal investigators and detectives was $60,910 while detective and police supervisors earned a median annual wage of $75,490.

Probation Officer and Correctional Treatment Specialists

Most probation officers and correctional treatment specialists are employed by local and state governments. A smaller number are employed by the federal government, with probation officers working under the U.S. Courts and correctional treatment specialists working under the U.S. Department of Justice's Bureau of Prisons. From 2008 to 2018, employment is expected to grow by 19 percent, which is faster than average. Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists can expect excellent job prospects. A growing population, retirement of current employees, mandatory sentencing guidelines, and high turnover are some of the reasons fueling the occupations' high growth.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median annual wage of probation officers and correctional treatment specialists was $45,910 in May 2008. Those employed in state government earned a median annual wage of $46,580 while those employed in local government earned a median annual wage of $46,420.

Source

BLS (2009)

What is Identity Theft?

Identity theft is the use of another person's personal information without that person's permission to commit fraud or other similar crimes. Some forms of personal information that are used in identity theft cases include names, social security numbers, bank account numbers and credit cards. It has been estimated that approximately 9 million people are victims of identity theft each year, making it one of the fastest growing crimes in the United States. In fact, up to 25 percent of all credit card fraud losses that occur each year may be the result of identity theft. Identity theft is a serious crime, one that has become much easier to commit in the digital age.

How Does Identity Theft Affect Victims?

Identity theft can have a devastating effect on a person's life. While some people can resolve identity theft issues quickly before any serious damage is done, others are taken for hundreds or even thousands of dollars. This can affect a person's ability to find jobs, rent or buy homes or receive student loans. Identity thieves have even been known to commit crimes in other people's names, crimes that result in the arrests of innocent people.  

How do People Commit Identity Theft?

Most identity theft occurs when theives misuse another individual's personal information. There are various methods of obtaining this information. These are some of the most common methods of identity theft.

• Dumpster Diving.  This is quite possibly the simplest and most common method of identity theft. Just as the name implies, thieves dig through garbage cans, dumpsters and other places where people may have thrown out any documents that may contain their personal information. Documents that may be valuable to dumpster divers include bank statements, credit card statements, tax documents, bills and anything else that may have personal or financial information.
• Skimming.  Skimming is the use of a special storage device that records credit card transactions to obtain a person's credit card information. This information can be used to make fraudulent purchases to this person's account.
• Phishing.  This method of identity theft has become more common as people have begun to spend more time online. It involves the use of spam emails or pop-up ads that pretend to be from financial or educational institutions asking for personal information. Once people enter their information, it belongs to the identity thieves.
• Change of Address.  This is another simple but effective method of identity theft. A thief fills out a change of address form in the victim's name, causing bills, financial statements and other important information to go to the new address for their personal fraudulent use.
• Stealing.  There's nothing sophisticated or fancy about this method. All one has to do is steal a man's wallet or a woman's purse and he or she has access to all the identification and credit cards that it may hold.
• Pretexting. This method seems similar to phishing, except the identity thief doesn't trick the victim into giving up personal information. Instead of contacting the victim, the thief contacts an institution under false pretenses and receives all the financial and personal info they need to commit fraud.

How Should People Protect Themselves from Identity Theft?

Identity theft is obviously a very serious problem, and people should do all they can to avoid becoming victims of would-be identity thieves. Most of these are simple preventative solutions, but they just might be enough to avoid the headache and debt that comes with having your identity stolen.

• Shred documents.  A great way to keep dumpster divers from getting their hands on personal information is to buy a cross-cut shredder that completely destroys any bills, bank statements or anything else that may contain any information that could be used fraudulently. 
• Watch your back at ATMs.  Identity thieves can learn your personal identification number by standing over your shoulder when you enter it at an ATM. This may sound like common sense, but be careful of anybody standing behind you whenever you make an electronic transaction.
• Monitor your accounts.  Check your banking statements often for suspicious activity. Ask your bank if they can set up alert or confirmation messages to your cell phone whenever unusual transactions occur.
• Don't carry more identity information than you need.  A driver's license and a valid credit card or debit card that you regularly use is enough. Leave everything else safely at home.
• Cancel any lost or stolen credit cards immediately.  If you have your wallet or purse stolen, immediately call and cancel any credit or debit cards it may have been holding. Anybody can use them if they're still active.
• Do not give out personal information to any institution you don't know.  This includes any strange or mysterious institutions that may ask for your information over the Internet. If you must give out information, ask to speak to someone who will assure you that your information will be kept safe and be destroyed when it is no longer needed. Trustworthy institutions will not ask for your personal information via e-mail.

If you find yourself the victim of identity theft, don't panic. If you have caught the problem quickly enough, most of the damage can be reversed. File a police report, go over all your financial transactions and dispute any that you did not make yourself. Always act sooner rather than later, and you should be able to restore your good name in due time.

Sources:

"About Identity Theft," FTC.gov

The Identity Theft Resource Center

Identity Theft Prevention and Survival

"Identity Theft." FDIC.gov

Capital punishment was practiced in the colonies long before the Revolutionary War. In the 1600s, execution was implemented for crimes ranging from murder and rape to petty theft, striking one's parents, being homosexual, and being a witch. The most common form of execution was public hanging, followed by the firing squad. By the 1700s, the European Enlightenment had resulted in some limitation of execution to cases of treason and murder. Hanging remained the most common form, but burning and bludgeoning were also introduced.

In the 1800s, several states began to allow juries to advise against execution. The first state to ban capital punishment altogether was Michigan in 1846, followed by Rhode Island and Wisconsin. At about this same time, burnings and bludgeoning largely disappeared, and electrocution appeared as a new option (though hanging and the firing squad continued as the leading methods of execution).

A resurgence of capital punishment occurred in the early 20^th century, with the 1930s recording more executions than any other decade in U.S. history. Electrocution became the most frequently used methodology, but the gas chamber was also introduced. Hanging and the firing squad, on the other hand, became less frequent.

Anti-death penalty sentiments returned in the 1950s and grew stronger throughout the '60s and '70s. This ultimately culminated in a nationwide moratorium on capital punishment between 1972 and 1977 (instituted by the Supreme Court ruling of Furman v. Georgia, which held that the death penalty laws resulted in arbitrary, unconstitutional sentencing). After this ruling, many states revised their statutes to work around Supreme Court objections; this resulted in approval by the Supreme Court in 1977 for capital punishment to resume (collectively known as the Gregg decision). Lethal injection was also introduced as a means for execution this same year.

By 2012, the United States was the only Western industrialized nation to allow execution (and one of 58 countries worldwide). Lethal injection was the preferred form of execution throughout the country, although hanging, electrocution, and gas chambers were still utilized in some states. Capital punishment was prohibited in 16 states and the District of Columbia, while the remaining states typically limited capital punishment to cases of aggravated murder and treason. Execution was never permitted (by Supreme Court rulings) for those who were less than 18 years old, mentally disabled, or mentally ill at the time of their crimes.

Statistics

Historically, most executions in the U.S. have been implemented with a younger demographic (between the ages of 20 and 29 - 44%), followed by 30 to 39 (27.5%), 40 to 49 (13.5%), 12 to 19 (8%), 50 to 59 (5.2%), 60 to 69 (1.5%), and 70 to 79 (0.3%). Only two instances of executions of individuals older than 80 have been recorded. A striking gender divide is notable, with only 2.4% of all executions in the U.S. involving females; most of these occurred prior to 1900.

In terms of ethnicity, the majority of executions throughout American history has involved African Americans (50.5%), followed by Caucasians (43.5%), Hispanics (2.5%), Native Americans (2.5%), and Asians (1%). Based on occupation, low-income wage workers (e.g., laborers and farmhands) are most likely to be executed, resulting in accusations that capital punishment discriminates against the poor.

Between 1977 and 2009, 1,188 legal executions were undertaken in the United States (with Texas having more than any other state). Caucasians represented the majority of those put to death (56.6%), but Black inmates constituted a disproportionately high percentage based on population demographics (13.6% of the entire population, but 34.6% of all executions). This discrepancy has also resulted in controversy, with claims that African-Americans are sentenced to capital punishment with unjust frequency.

Further Controversy

Those who support the death penalty argue that execution protects the public, serves as crime prevention, and is a just form of retribution. Individuals opposed to capital punishment claim that alternative forms of public protection are available, execution is not a deterrent to future crime, and it is morally reprehensible to take the life of any human being. From an economic perspective, the cost of execution can be significantly higher than lifetime incarceration, due to the extensive appeals processes that can run in excess of ten million dollars. In addition, with improved technology (e.g., DNA analyses), increasing numbers of death row inmates have been proven innocent, including some who have already been put to death. On the other hand, pardons and parole have been granted to individuals who have committed heinous crimes. Feelings are very strong on both sides, but there are no easy answers.

Sources

Introduction to the Death Penalty (2012) Death Penalty Information Center

US Executions from 1608-2002 (2011) ProCon.org

Top 10 Pros and Cons (2011) ProCon.org

History of the Death Penalty & Recent Developments (2005) University of Alaska Anchorage

Capital Punishment Timeline (2011) The Clark County Prosecuting Attorney

Bank robbers have always caught the public's imagination. From Robin Hood to John Dillinger to Bonnie and Clyde, Hollywood has told and retold the amazing adventure stories (and often tragic ends) of thieving outlaws. But there are some stories you may not have heard. Who made their get-away in an inner tube? Who stole 355 lbs of cash? Who stormed their way into a bank dressed up as a holiday character? Read on to find out!

Jesse James: America's First Daytime Bank Robbery

Notorious outlaw Jesse James is rumored to have taken part in the very first daytime bank robbery in the United States on Feb. 13, 1866, in Liberty, Missouri. The raid was fairly successful: almost $60,000 in bonds, cash, and coins was stolen. The robbers escaped after pistol-whipping a cashier and killing a bystander.

Most of James's robberies did not go so well. In 1869, he robbed the Daviess County Savings Association in Gallatin, Missouri, and apparently lost $100 while making off with a stack of paper. He did end up shooting the cashier though (who was, unfortunately, not his intended target).

Raised in Missouri during the lead-up to the Civil War, James's family sided with the Confederacy. After the South lost the war, Reconstruction made life hard on ex-members of the Confederacy. James didn't take kindly to that. In fact, most of his robberies seem to have been motivated by his intent to do damage to businesses and individuals associated with the new Republican government.

One of the most successful bank robbers in history (assuming you measure success by number of years spent successfully evading the authorities), James was eventually assassinated by a member of his own gang, Robert Ford, for a $10,000 reward and a full pardon.

Photo Courtesy of The Daily Mail

The Santa Claus Bank Robbery

On Christmas Eve 1927, in Cicso, Texas, four men— Marshall Ratliff, Henry Helms, Robert Hill, and Louis Davis— held up the first National Bank . It was a bad year to be a bank employee. Banks had been being robbed left and right, leading the Texas Bankers' Association to offer a $5,000 reward to anyone who managed to shoot a bank robber during the commission of the crime.

In this particular robbery, one of the bandits had decided he needed a disguise, and so, feeling seasonal, Marshall Ratliff donned a Santa Claus suit. On the way to the bank, the would-be robbers were followed by a curious group of children who wanted to see what Santa was up to. I'm guessing a fair number of adults viewed St. Nick more suspiciously as he crept toward the bank.

Once in the bank, the bandits drew their guns and asked the tellers to hand over the money. What the robbers presumably were not expecting was that a large portion of the citizenry of Cicso had heard about the reward money and was packing heat. A gun battle erupted leaving upwards of 200 bullet holes in the bank.

The robbers escaped with hostages into their getaway car but they hadn't thought to fill it up with gas before committing armed robbery. So they stopped and carjacked an Oldsmobile from a 14 year old and his family. The kid gave them the car, but not the keys – as they realized shortly after. So, after leaving the by-now injured Louis Davis behind with the money ($12,400 in cash and $150,000 in non-negotiable securities), the three remaining robbers returned to their old car with the hostages and drove off. The robbers eventually abandoned the hostages and continued their escape on foot. They were caught after a multi-day manhunt.

Robert Hill pleaded guilty to armed robbery and was sentenced to prison. He escaped three times but eventually served his time and was released in the '40s. Henry Helms was executed by electric chair for the deaths of some of the people caught up in the shootout. Marshall Ratliff pleaded insanity (remember the Santa suit?), which did not sit well with the local population. They broke Ratliff out of prison to lynch him, managing to drop him the first time they strung him up, but succeeding on the second try. Now there's a nice picket fence commemorating the power pole they used to lynch him.

Photo Courtesy of Amazon

The Cell Phone Bandit

Crimes of cell phone etiquette are rampant nowadays. College instructors are increasingly putting notices on their syllabi requiring phones to be turned off in class to prevent students from texting (and sometimes even taking calls) during lectures. Movie theaters ask patrons to refrain from texting during the show. And often people are subjected to personal calls issuing from the public restroom stall next door. But in 2005, crimes of cell phone etiquette merged with actual crimes in the case of the Cell Phone Bandit.

The Cell Phone Bandit, 20-year-old Candice R. Martinez, was a serial bank robber who plagued four Wachovia banks in Northern Virginia. Her first crime took place in October of 2005 when she walked into a bank with a box, talking on her cell to her boyfriend, Dave Williams. She approached the teller and showed the teller a box that had a note on it demanding money.

During the robbery Martinez refrained from talking much to the bank staff but continued talking on her phone the whole time. Over the course of the four robberies Martinez and her boyfriend netted $48,620 which they used to buy a Chihuahua, a TV, a bedroom set, and a 1997 Acura Integra.

Martinez was apprehended when FBI Special Agent Ron Chavarro happened to spot her car. She received a 12-year prison sentence. Her boyfriend earned 12 years for helping Martinez plan the robberies. He was a former employee of Wachovia.

Photo courtesy of CBS News

Craigslist Robbery

In October of 2008 a bandit wearing an amazing disguise – a yellow vest, safety goggles, and a respirator mask – approached an armored truck parked outside a Bank of America branch in Monroe, Washington. He sprayed the man guarding the unloading of the cash with pepper spray and grabbed a bag of money containing $400,000.

The bandit made his escape in an inner tube, jumping into a creek that drained into the Skykomish River. You'd have thought that his outfit would make him easily recognizable, but the man had planned ahead. Previous to the crime, he had put an ad on Craigslist for road maintenance workers. He specified that they were to wear yellow vests, safety goggles, and respirator masks. A dozen workers showed up around the time of the robbery, drawn by the $28.50-an-hour job.

The robber, 28-year-old former high school star athlete Anthony Curcio, was identified by DNA left at the scene of the crime. Curcio pleaded guilty in 2009.

Photo courtesy of SaleGadgets

The Trench Coat Robbers: Seafirst Bank

In 1997 two amazingly successful bank robbers finally tripped up in the aftermath of a raid on Seafirst Bank in Lakewood, Washington. The raid itself was a success: they got away with $4,461,681 in cash. That's 355 pounds of money.

These two were the Trench Coat Robbers Ray Bowman and William Kirkpatrick, serial bank robbers who are thought to have robbed 27 banks over 15 years, stealing a total of more than $7,000,000 without seriously injuring anyone. For bank robbers they seemed kind of nice: at one point one of them bought a hostage a 7UP from a vending machine.

Bowman and Kirkpatrick would wait to enter a bank until just before opening or just after close, so that they only had to deal with the employees. They earned their nickname by wearing disguises: trench coats, wigs, and dark makeup. On the day they held up the Seafirst Bank they were both wearing baseball caps with FBI insignias on them.

The Trench Coat Robbers were caught by tiny slips. Bowman forgot to pay a bill. He was overdue on the rent for the storage locker which housed his gun collection and some literature on breaking and entering. The owner of the locker opened it, freaked out, and called the authorities.

Kirkpatrick was caught speeding with $1,800,000 in the car. Some of the money was identifiable as cash stolen from Seafirst Bank. Eventually, the authorities put the two men together. Bowman was sentenced to 24 years in jail; Kirkpatrick got 15.

Photo courtesy of Incite Pictures

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Eight Terrible Police Scandals

The police force strives to uphold justice and hold down crime. But be it the beckoning finger of extra cash or a violent vigilante mindset, police officers routinely have to work with things that have turned many good cops into quite decidedly bad cops. Some countries like Russia and Puerto Rico suffer from inexcusable police corruption: scandals are rife throughout their police departments.

The police scandals below reveal an ugly side of justice – the secret double lives of police officers; the extortion, drug dealings, abuse, and murders. However, the fact that these scandals have come to light is indicative that other police officers are still carrying out exemplary investigative work.

Ipperwash Crisis: Ontario, Canada

On September 4, 1995, First Nation tribe members from the Stoney Point Ojibway band protested on Ipperwach Provincial Park to reclaim their land. History was on their side: the Canadian government had seized Native land in 1942 to establish a WWII military training camp; this land had then became Ipperwash Provincial Park; and First Indians had been trying to reclaim it ever since.

With the Ontario Provincial Police cautiously looking on, 35 Stoney Point protestors occupied the park for a peaceful demonstration. But tension escalated between police and protestors when a tribe member smashed the window of a police car. Eight protestors moved to a nearby parking lot wielding baseball bats and sticks, and within the next two days riot squads and SWAT teams had moved in.

When a protestor approached the police, he was arrested and beaten. Fellow protestors rushed in to rescue their fallen friend, sparking a riot. The police opened fire, including officer Kenneth Deane, who wounded protestor Dudley George. Police delayed George's family from taking him to the hospital, and he soon died from gunshot wounds on September 7, 1995. George became the only First Indian killed during a 20 th century land claims protest.

Deane – who claims that he mistook George to be carrying a rifle – was convicted of criminal negligence and sentenced to two years of community service. Unsatisfied, Dudley George's family fought for a public inquiry for eight years until the government finally launched the Ipperwash Inquiry on November 12, 2003. The report revealed crass police misconduct, particularly racist profanities uttered by former-Premier Mike Harris and former-police Sergeant Stan Korosec. The Canadian government signed over the park to the Stoney Point First Nation on May 28, 2009.

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Charles Becker: Manhattan, N.Y.

Charles Becker was both a successful NYPD officer and a powerful criminal. His work against police corruption landed him a position as the head of an anti-vice squad in 1911, which he unscrupulously exploited to further his own corrupt practices.

Becker used his power to demand payments from Manhattan brothels and casinos in exchange for police immunity and protection. He recruited thugs to execute his dirty work. With the threat of a police raid, he managed to extort $100,000 from several illegal businesses. However, Becker's illegal reign came to a dramatic end after a heated argument with his close gambling partner, Herman Rosenthal.

Furious, Becker ordered a raid to close down Rosenthal's operations. Rosenthal wreaked vengeance by exposing Becker's illegal double life to fearless district attorney Charles S. Whitman, who boldly denounced Becker. After Becker ordered his thugs to kill Rosenthal, Whitman arrested Becker on June 29, 1912. Two trials convicting him of murder sent him to the electric chair, and on July 30, 1915 he became the first police officer in U.S. history to receive the death penalty for murder.

But the case is not quite closed, according to some historians. Although his corrupt dealings are indisputable, some question his role in Rosenthal's murder. Others even accuse Whitman, who became governor in November 1914, of manipulating evidence to further his own political aspirations.

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Russia "Human Shield" Scandal: Moscow, Russia

In March 2009, Moscow police officers ordered Sergei Sutyagin and two other drivers to align their cars as a barricade to block a criminal fleeing in a speeding Audi. The driver rammed through the three cars with their passengers still inside and sped from the scene. Despite their serious injuries, the officers refused to compensate the three drivers, arousing national outrage.

The “Human Shield” scandal tailgates another traffic scandal in which police covered up a car accident that killed two people. These scandals join the countless others that weigh down the Moscow police. Several cases of misconduct, incompetence, and corruption within the Moscow police force have sparked widespread disdain, mistrust, and fear. In April 2009, a police chief went on a rampage in a supermarket, killing two and wounding seven.

The Russians themselves criticize their police department's unbelievable incompetence, citing the daytime murders of journalists Anastasia Baburova and Anna Politkovskaya. A February 2009 poll revealed that Russians either fear or mistrust police, while newspapers regularly castigate the police force.

Cleaning up the Moscow police remains a nagging issue for the Russian government, especially President Dmitri A. Medvedev. Medvedev hopes to improve the quality of law enforcement by decreasing police employment and increasing wage and benefits. He maintains a hopeful outlook: “People want members of the police who are morally impeccable to defend them, even more so in a legal sense. They want to trust them. I am confident that we can create such a structure.”

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Murder of Neda Agha-Soltan: Tehran, Iran

The disputed 2009 Iranian presidential election between President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and wildly popular candidate Mir Hossein Musavi ignited deadly turmoil between pro-reform protestors and the “peace-keeping” police. After the election, the new President urged law enforcers to maintain peace among the rioters who were still supporting Musavi as the true winner. But the police only increased the violence, detaining more than 5,000 protestors, and abusing and even killing prisoners.

The police suppressed the protestors using batons, pepper spray, tear gas, and firearms, and causing an estimated 72 deaths in 2009. Caught in the crossfire was Neda Agha-Soltan. Heading to an election protest on June 20, 2009, she was shot by an unknown Basij militiaman in Tehran.

After her death, the government denied Soltan a proper burial, and police and militiamen refused to allow them to hold any mourning or memorial service. Her family and 70 other mourners attempted to hold a service outside the Niloufar mosque, but just 10 minutes in, 20 militiamen stormed them and broke up the mourners.

Some of Soltan's supporters have fled Iran in fear of government repression, but many continue to protest of the election while police continue to suppress and abuse them. Soltan's death has cast her as the icon of their protests. Several videos of her death have captured media outrage, and inspire protests to this day.

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Puerto Rico Police Corruption: Puerto Rico

Puerto Rican Agent Alejo Maldonado led a double life: Head of the Criminal Investigations Corps at the police academy, and a deadly gang leader leading 25 other officers. Maldonado terrorized Puerto Rico in the 1970s as he brazenly committed arson, extortion, kidnappings, robberies, and murders-for-hire – all with the law ostensibly on his side.

His final heist was ransoming Mario Consuegra, son of a wealthy jeweler, for $300,000 in 1983 before being sentenced to 40 years in prison on charges of extortion and conspiracy. Despite his arrest, Maldonado predicted that police corruption in Puerto Rico would not end: “Police corruption is eternal. It was not something we made up, it was there and it still exists. Our evil was not ours alone, it was everybody around us.”

Indeed, corruption still runs rampant within the Puerto Rico Police Department. Officers, judges, and prosecutors are accused especially of aiding drug deals by protecting drug dealers, returning confiscated drugs, and planting and removing evidence, among other accusations. In 2001 and 2002 more than 60 officers were arrested on drug-related charges. Puerto Ricans have lost faith in their justice system as countless accusations and arrests continue to sully the police department.

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Abner Louima Scandal: New York City, N.Y.

Once called the most depraved act ever committed by a police officer, NYPD officer Justin A. Volpe sodomized Haitian immigrant Abner Louima with a broom handle on August 9, 1997. Volpe had arrested Louima after a scuffle at a nightclub, mistaking Louima to have hit him. A second officer escorted Louima to a bathroom in a Brooklyn police station, where Volpe brutalized Louima with a broken broom handle while yelling racial slurs. Volpe later brandished the sullied broom and bragged to other officers.

While Louima lay in the hospital for two months, officers attempted to cover up the incident, claiming that Louima's wounds were caused by homosexual relations. However, Volpe was charged with aggravated sexual abuse and first-degree assault on August 13, 1997. The trials continued for five years, and fellow officers broke the “blue wall of silence” – the unspoken agreement that officers would not report other officers' misconducts – to testify against the charged officers.

Volpe pled guilty while accusations flew between NYPD officers Charles Schwarz, Thomas Wiese, Thomas Bruder regarding the second officer that participated in the crime. Though the identity of Volpe's fellow attacker was never solved, the court sentenced Volpe to 30 years in prison in 1999. Schwarz, Bruder, and Wiese received sentences in 2000 that were later overturned, and Louima was awarded over $8 million in settlement costs.

In 2008, the NYPD faced yet another sodomy charge in a case involving Officer Richard Kern and victim Michael Mineo. Though all charged officers were not found guilty, the case sent disturbing echoes of Abner Louima around the NYPD.

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Rampart Scandal: Los Angeles, Calif.

The Rampart Scandal is known as one of the most widespread cases of police corruption in U.S. history, with around 70 officers implicated in “the worst corruption scandal in LAPD history.”

Former Police Chief Daryl F. Gates had created the Community Resources Against Street Hoodlums (CRASH) unit in the late 1970s to fight growing gang activity in the Rampart police division of the city. CRASH officers took extreme measures to suppress gang activity. Brutality defined CRASH culture. However, this vigilantism eventually went too far, with several incidents in the late 90s revealing the corruption within the Rampart police division.

A road rage shootout on March 18, 1997 was the first incident in a chain of events that led to the downfall of LAPD. CRASH officer Kevin Gaines drove up to LAPD officer Frank Lyga, threatening Lyga with a gun in one hand and gang signs in the other. Lyga shot Gaines in self-defense. Investigation revealed that Gaines was one of many officers hired by “Death Row Records” – a rap recording company related to the Bloods gang. The company lucratively paid off-duty officers like Gaines as security guards.

Other incidents – an armed bank robbery, a brutal beating, and cocaine theft – shed further light on the darker side of the CRASH officers. Concerned, former Chief Bernard Parks launched the Rampart Corruption Task Force to investigate officers, which led to the arrest of CRASH officer Rafael Perez on August 25, 1998. Perez agreed to provide investigators with information in exchange for a lighter prison sentence. His 4,000-page testimony implicated about 70 officers in countless incidents of misconduct: framing, false testimonies, stealing $800,000-worth of cocaine, and beatings. And although Perez never addressed it, the CRASH unit may also have ties to the murder of rapper Notorious B.I.G.

In the end, the LAPD faced 140 civil suits and $125 million in settlement costs. Although Parks disbanded CRASH in 2000, there are still many references to the Rampart Scandal in pop culture.

(Photo of former-Chief Bernard Parks, with Rafael Perez in the top right corner.)

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Caso Degollados Scandal (Case of the Slit Throats): Santiago, Chile

On March 30, 1985, three communist party members – Manuel Guerrero Ceballos, Santiago Nattino Allende, and Jose Manuel Parada Maluenda – were found with their throats slashed near Santiago, Chile. The three men had been kidnapped just two days before their deaths.

The grisly murder, which most believe to be politically motivated, induced the Supreme Court to appoint Jose Canovas Robles as the Special Investigating Judge.   In August, Canovas arrested and indicted several members of the national police force, the Carabineros: Colonel Julio Luis Michea, Colonel Luis Fontaine, Major Guillermo Gonzalez Betancourt, Captain Hector Diaz Anderson, Captain Patricio Zamora, and two non - commissioned officers .

This provoked institutional turmoil within police forces: the resignation of Director General of the Carabineros Cesar Mendoza, the appointment of new Director General Rodolfo Stange, the dissolution of Carabineros agency DICOMCAR, and several other changes. For over 18 months, no one was convicted due to judges constantly transferring the case on to others. But six policemen were eventually sentenced to life in prison.

Photos courtesy of Amnesty International, ABC News, Primera Hora, News One, Salon, and La Nación.

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A crime scene investigator is an expert who uses forensic techniques at the scene of a crime to indentify, gather, document, and preserve physical evidence in order to assist in criminal investigations. Forensics techniques include:

• Interviewing witnesses
• Taking photographs
• Sketching the crime scene
• Collecting fingerprints or DNA evidence

Daily Tasks

Upon arriving at a crime scene, a crime scene investigator must secure the scene and evidence against possible outside contamination. Crime scene investigators collaborate on a daily basis with members of law enforcement at the local, state, and federal levels, as well as with other agencies, court officials, hospitals, and private laboratories.

Crime scene investigators are responsible for writing their own reports, and they must maintain meticulous records documenting things like chain-of-custody of evidence (to ensure that no one has tampered with it—which could potentially torpedo a court case). They must have high standards and moral values since they are responsible for writing accurate reports, weighing all of the evidence, and giving precise, honest testimonies in court.

Crime scene investigators can serve as witnesses in court cases. In these instances, crime scene investigators must verbally present their analyses to a jury of the defendant's peers—people who are extremely unlikely to share the investigator's educational background and range of knowledge. Investigators must be patient and have a high tolerance for frustration as their work is scrutinized by lawyers in the courtroom.

Training & Education

It is common for a crime scene investigator to possess a few years of experience as a patrol officer, although some police departments hire civilians as investigators. Crime scene investigators must have at least an associate's degree in forensic science, criminalistics, biology, chemistry, criminal justice, computer science, or a related degree.

Oftentimes, applicants for a position as a crime scene investigator must pass a polygraph exam, a background check, and physical and psychological examinations.

Crime scene investigators are trained on the job in specific techniques and procedures, but they are also expected to take continuing education classes throughout their careers. This will allow them to stay up-to-date on new information and techniques relevant to the identification, documentation, and preservation of physical evidence.

Salary & Career Outlook

There is significant overlap between the duties of a crime scene investigator and those of a forensic scientist, and some jurisdictions use the terms interchangeably. Many jobs fall under the broad umbrella term of “crime scene investigation,” including such specialties as:

• DNA examiner
• Firearms and tool mark examiner
• Evidence control technician
• Print examiner

Because of the wide variety of specializations in crime scene investigation, it's difficult to provide an estimated annual salary. As of May 2007, the Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that the average hourly wage of forensic science technicians was $24.19 and the average annual salary was $50,310.

Article Resources

Crime Scene Investigation: A Guide for Law Enforcement
Crime-Scene-Investigator.net
Frank Schmalleger, Criminal Justice Today: An Introductory Text for the 21st Century

A World Tour of Crime

Although it might not seem like it if you watch television news networks, it appears that crime has been on the decline both in the US and around the world for the last several years. Nevertheless, certain types of crime show no signs of slowing down, and many have in fact become more widespread due to technological innovations. The following tour offers a survey of ten nations and the crime that is most pervasive or notorious within their borders.

United States: Car Theft

For over 100 years the automobile has stood as a symbol of American innovation, freedom and prosperity. It is no surprise then, that it is the target of one of the most ubiquitous crimes in the United States . A car was stolen every 23 seconds in 1996 according to the FBI's crime report. Auto theft rates rose steadily in the late 1980s, peaking at over 20 thefts per 1,000 households, but have dropped to less than half that in the 2000s. Despite this progress towards relative safety, the United States continues to be one of the most dangerous places in the world for unattended cars.

Colombia: Murder

The United States is typically at or near the top of lists of crime rates in industrialized nations, but is rarely in the top ten globally, even in crimes where we have a particularly bad rap (such as gun crimes). With regard to murder rates, for example, Colombia tops the list with a rate of 6.1 per 10,000 people, well beyond the United States ' rate of 5.4. Colombia has an international reputation for its extensive drug-trafficking networks, which undoubtedly play a role in the record-high murder rate. Violent crime in general has been on the rise due to widespread poverty, primarily affecting affluent tourists in urban areas.

Denmark: Burglary

Denmark has seen a dramatic rise in burglary rates in recent years, with a 51.3% increase from 1995 to 2000, and continued rises in recent years. In 2000 alone, a burglary was reported in 1,868 of every 100,000 households, one of the highest rates in developed nations worldwide. The ensuing panic has led many homeowners to invest in a “panic room,” an impenetrable hideaway where the victimized family can retreat until help arrives. Security companies have capitalized on this increased demand, charging upwards of $30,000 kroner ($5,200 US Dollars), a small price to pay for peace of mind in one of the world's worst nations for home burglary.

Ukraine: Organized Crime

For many countries in Eastern Europe , the fall of the Soviet Union meant replacing a foreign corrupt government with a local one. Such is the case with modern Ukraine , which boasts one of the largest and most powerful organized crime networks in the world. Political exposés have revealed that everyone from bankers to public officials to law enforcement officers are involved in illegal operations that include money laundering, extortion, fraud and information sharing. These and other practices earn Ukraine a spot near the bottom of Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index, at 70 th out of 85.

Nigeria: Fraud

If you have an e-mail account, chances are you've received at least one message in the past year from an unfamiliar address, in which the sender claims to be a Nigerian government official seeking your assistance in moving a large sum of money out of the country (for which he will reward you handsomely). Hopefully, you immediately realized that it was a “4-1-9 scam” (named after section 4-1-9 of the Nigerian Penal Code which relates to fraudulent schemes) and deleted it without a second thought. Enough gullible people have failed to see through the scam, however, that the 4-1-9 letter has become Nigeria's third-largest industry and a constant headache for the U.S. State Department, as “investors” looking to claim their money are usually imprisoned and extorted immediately after setting foot on Nigerian soil.

United Kingdom: Violent Crime

If asked who the most violent people in Europe , few people would be likely to list the British among the guilty nations. But official crime reports put the UK at the top of the heap with over one million violent crimes committed in 2008, a rate of 2,034 per 100,000 residents. Violent crimes have risen 77% in the last decade, leading politicians and public officials to push for neighborhood watch and early intervention programs to deter criminal behavior. The UK also has the second-highest overall crime rate in the European Union and the fourth-highest burglary rate.

China: Software Piracy

Although American corporate executives might lead you to believe otherwise, the United States actually has one of the lowest software piracy rates in the world at about 20%. On the other end of the spectrum is China, whose losses due to software piracy total to about six billion dollars, hundreds of times greater the global average. The news isn't all bad for software executives, however: the spread of pirated copies of the Windows Operating System in Eastern Europe and China gave Microsoft a massive market share that Bill Gates and company optimistically predict will eventually generate revenue once the users “go legit.”

Mexico: Drug Trafficking

While the current debate over the porous US-Mexico border centers on illegal aliens, by a long shot the most commonly smuggled goods are marijuana, cocaine, and other illegal narcotics and amphetamines. A 2007 congressional report on Mexico 's drug cartels reported that they control the majority of the illicit drug market in the United States —for example, an estimated 90% of cocaine that enters the US passes through Mexican territory, as well as the majority of imported marijuana. The Mexican government is aware of no less than seven major Mexican drug cartels concentrated mainly in the country's urban areas such as Tijuana and Mexico City, who work with prison and street gangs to distribute the drugs to American markets.

Sudan and Burma: Human Trafficking

While illegal drug trafficking is a serious health and safety issue, an even more harmful trade continues to plague underdeveloped nations: the selling and trading of child and adult slaves for the purposes of forced labor or prostitution. Unending civil war in regions such as Sudan and Burma has led to the recruitment of child soldiers as combatants, spies, and sex slaves. While it is exceedingly difficult to track down and arrest the rebel militants who oversee this trade, there have been successes: in 2006, the Congolese government turned rebel leader Thomas Lubanga over to the International Criminal Court to be tried for crimes including the recruitment of child soldiers under the age of fifteen.

Sources: Nationmaster, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Crime Doctor, Travel.State.Gov, IceNews, The World Bank, FBI, Quantloos, The Daily Mail, Softpedia, CNET, CNN.

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Criminals have been scaring and intriguing people for forever. Who doesn't indulge in a multiple-hour COPS marathon every now and then? And I bet you've forwarded more than a few 'stupidest criminal' e-mail stories to your friends, family, and coworkers.

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If you just can't get enough criminal action, look no further! We're scouring our sources (confidential, of course) to keep your criminal justice addiction satisfied.

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